The Fool in Sociohistorical Context

 The Tarot trump card, the Fool, depicts a wandering figure carrying a staff and bundle, often accompanied by a dog tugging at his clothes. The Fool is a well known figural image from the late Medieval period through the Early Modern era. Here, I will examine the Fool as depicted on the oldest printed versions of the Tarot in its sociohistorical context.

The Tarot of Marseilles, one of the oldest and most influential Tarot decks, dates back to 17th-century France and became the standard for Tarot design. Its bold, woodcut-style imagery is rooted in earlier traditions best exemplified by the partial print of the Carey sheet.

The Carey sheet, an earlier artifact from the late 15th or early 16th century, is the oldest extant printed example of Tarot cards. Though fragmentary, it includes key elements of the Tarot, such as the Fool, in a simpler and more austere style. Both the Marseilles deck and the Carey sheet serve as milestones in the history of Tarot, reflecting its original form.

The Carey sheet originated in Northern Italy, likely Milan or Ferrara, in the late 15th or early 16th century. It represents one of the earliest examples of printed Tarot imagery, produced using woodblock printing techniques. The sheet is fragmentary, but it provides a glimpse of early Tarot design that predates the Tarot of Marseilles.

While less detailed than the Marseilles deck, the Carey sheet's linear and symbolic representations of characters laid the groundwork for the more refined Marseilles imagery. Iconographic elements like the Fool’s staff and bundle, or the presence of allegorical figures, establish a visual and thematic continuity between the two traditions. The Carey sheet illustrates the developmental phase of Tarot design, bridging Italian Renaissance origins and the standardized French styles exemplified by the Marseilles deck. 

The Fool in the Marseilles Tarot

Fool of the Marseilles

The Fool, known as Le Mat in the Tarot of Marseilles, is a striking and enigmatic figure. In the traditional Marseilles deck, this card features a man walking forward, seemingly oblivious to his surroundings. His attire is colorful and erratic, often interpreted as the garb of a vagabond or jester. The figure is carrying a staff slung over his shoulder, from which hangs a small bundle, symbolizing minimal possessions and a carefree spirit. This imagery evokes the idea of a wanderer embarking on a journey, unburdened by material concerns.

One of the most notable features is the presence of a small dog. The animal appears to be leaping or tugging at the Fool's garments, particularly the lower part of his trousers. Interpretations of the dog vary—it may represent loyalty, instinct, or even a warning of danger. The dog’s actions appear playful but also disruptive, hinting at both companionship and the risks of distraction or ignorance.

Behind the Fool, the background is often sparse, emphasizing movement rather than a fixed location. Unlike the later occultist inspired Fool cards, there is no cliff. The card lacks a number in the trump suit sequence, signifying its unique status as a card both within and outside the ordered system of the Tarot. In this way, the Fool is both a beginning and an end, a card of infinite possibilities and undefined outcomes.

The Fool in the Carey Sheet

The Carey sheet, an early example of Tarot iconography from the late 15th or early 16th century, presents a simpler but no less evocative depiction of the Fool. This sheet, a precursor to the Marseilles deck, shows a similar wandering figure, but its artistic style is more austere, reflecting the woodcut techniques of its time.

The Fool on the Carey sheet also carries a staff and bundle, indicating his role as a traveler. His attire appears tattered, emphasizing themes of poverty or asceticism. A dog or other animal is present, though its depiction is less dynamic than in later decks. This might suggest a quieter interaction between man and beast, focusing more on the figure's solitary journey.

The Fool in the Visconti and Visconti-Sforza Decks

from the Cary Yale Visconti

The Fool, or Il Matto, as it appears in the Visconti and Visconti-Sforza Tarot decks of the 15th century, offers a fascinating glimpse into the early evolution of this image. These lavish hand-painted decks were commissioned by noble families in Milan and reflect the opulence of the Renaissance era, both in artistic style and symbolism.

The Fool in the Visconti Tarot is depicted as a wild and ragged figure, with an emphasis on his untamed and erratic nature. He is dressed in ragged, mismatched clothing, sometimes adorned with bells or other jester-like accessories, though far from the whimsical or colorful appearance seen in later decks. His hair is unkempt, and his expression is often wide-eyed, hinting at madness or a detachment from societal norms.

What sets this depiction apart is the Fool's physical posture and the lack of a clear sense of motion. He appears static, as if frozen in his role as an outsider or madman. This stillness contrasts with the dynamic energy of the Fool in the Marseilles Tarot, suggesting a more contemplative or tragic interpretation of the character.

In the Visconti-Sforza deck, the Fool retains many features of his predecessor but adds a layer of complexity. This version of the Fool, often referred to as "Il Matto," is portrayed with more humanity and nuance. He is barefoot, emphasizing his vulnerability and connection to the earth, and his tattered garments are adorned with symbolic patterns that may hint at the folly of material pursuits.

A striking feature of the Visconti-Sforza Fool is his inclusion of symbolic objects. He often carries a staff and sometimes a small bundle, though less prominently than in the Marseilles or Carey depictions. Some versions of the card include a garland of leaves around his head, a motif often associated with Dionysian revelry or divine madness. These details elevate the Fool from a mere outcast to a figure embodying both folly and sacred wisdom.

The animal companion—a key feature in later decks—is not always present in these early Visconti depictions. Instead, the focus remains on the human figure.

The Fool in the Sola Busca Tarot

Sola Busca Fool

The Sola Busca Tarot, created in the late 15th century, is renowned as the earliest fully illustrated Tarot deck, rich in alchemical and esoteric symbolism. The deck’s depiction of the Fool, known as Mato, diverges from traditional portrayals, offering a distinct and thought-provoking interpretation.

In the Sola Busca deck, Mato is depicted as a grotesque and somewhat unsettling figure. He hunches forward with an exaggerated posture, dressed in mismatched and tattered garments that emphasize his disheveled and chaotic nature. His wild, unkempt appearance, along with his manic expression, conveys a sense of erratic energy and detachment from societal norms.

Instead of the familiar staff and bundle seen in other decks, Mato carries and plays a bagpipe. This detail is significant, as the bagpipe was often associated with folly and excess in medieval and Renaissance iconography. The instrument’s droning, earthy sound made it a symbol of the body and base instincts, contrasting with the higher, celestial associations of string instruments like the lute.

The bagpipe connects Mato to bodily desires and irrationality, reflecting humanity’s instinctual, untamed side. Playing the bagpipe, an instrument often linked to peasants or rustic simplicity, Mato embodies a mockery of reason and the intellectual pretensions of society. The act of playing the bagpipe amidst his grotesque appearance amplifies the sense of chaos and unpredictability, suggesting a break from societal norms and expectations.

Unlike the Fool in other Tarot decks, Mato is depicted alone, without a loyal dog or companion. This solitude emphasizes his isolation and self-reliance, suggesting that his journey through life is unmoored from external guidance or connection to others. The focus on the bagpipe further suggests an itinerant performer, perhaps traveling from carnival to carnival.

The Misero Card in the Mantegna Tarocchi

Mantegna Tarocchi

The Mantegna Tarocchi, created in the mid-15th century, is a set of 50 engraved cards that, while not technically Tarot, is closely related in style and structure. Likely originating in Ferrara or Venice, this deck is an educational and allegorical tool, illustrating hierarchical concepts such as human conditions, the arts, celestial spheres, and virtues. Its influence on Renaissance thought and art parallels the evolving symbolic language of early Tarot.

One of the most striking cards in the Mantegna deck is the Misero (the Beggar). Often interpreted as a prototype of the Fool, it depicts a beggar in tattered clothing, leaning on a staff with a downcast expression. Unlike the more dynamic Fools of Tarot, the Misero is static, emphasizing poverty and human frailty rather than movement or journey.

The Misero wears torn clothing, symbolizing material and spiritual destitution. Leaning heavily on a staff, he conveys dependence and weariness, contrasting with the carefree energy of Tarot Fools. The card represents humanity’s lowest condition, inviting reflection on themes of humility, suffering, and the precariousness of existence.

The Fool in Late Medieval and Renaissance Culture

Hieronymus Bosch's
The Ship of Fools

In late medieval and early Renaissance art, the Fool is a recurring figure, often depicted as a grotesque, comedic, or pitiable character. Artists used exaggerated features—misshapen faces, wild expressions, and ragged clothing—to signify the Fool's social and intellectual marginalization. The Fool was commonly shown carrying a staff, a bauble, or a small animal, often a dog or a monkey, emphasizing his irrationality and connection to base instincts. These motifs are found not only in Tarot cards but also in manuscript illuminations, panel paintings, and frescoes.

Fools often wore bells, a cap with donkey ears, or motley clothing, distinguishing them from common peasants and linking them to the role of the court jester. The visual iconography of the Fool was closely tied to popular morality plays and carnival traditions, where such figures played a dual role: both mocking societal norms and subtly critiquing authority.

In works such as Hieronymus Bosch's The Ship of Fools (c. 1490–1500), the Fool is part of a larger allegorical commentary on human folly. Bosch's grotesque figures, including the Fool, serve as cautionary examples of moral degradation and spiritual ignorance, aligning with the didactic tone of the era's art.

The Social Significance of the Fool in Northern Italy

In late medieval and early Renaissance Northern Italy, the Fool occupied a liminal social space. On one hand, jesters and fools were integral to the courts of powerful families like the Visconti and Sforza. These "licensed fools" entertained with sharp wit and satire, serving as both comic relief and truth-tellers who could criticize authority under the guise of humor. Their presence reflected the complex interplay between social order and sanctioned subversion.

Outside the courts, "natural fools" (a term used for individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities) and wandering beggars were marginalized, often surviving on charity. The cities and courts of Northern Italy, bustling with artistic and intellectual activity, provided a stark contrast to the lives of these individuals, who embodied the fragility of the human condition in a rapidly changing world.

The Fool also appeared in popular festivals, particularly Carnival, where societal hierarchies were temporarily inverted. During these festivities, the Fool’s antics and mockery symbolized the chaotic underside of society, a necessary release before the return to order.

The Allegorical Role of the Fool in Art

Allegorically, the Fool in late medieval and Renaissance art symbolized moral and spiritual folly. His image often carried warnings about the dangers of ignoring divine wisdom and succumbing to worldly temptations. In this context, the Fool was a visual embodiment of the Biblical admonition: "The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God’" (Psalm 14:1). This verse underscored the connection between folly and spiritual ignorance, making the Fool a figure of moral caution.

In allegorical cycles, such as those in illuminated manuscripts or frescoes, the Fool was juxtaposed with Wisdom or Prudence, contrasting the destructive consequences of folly with the rewards of virtue. The Fool’s presence reminded viewers of humanity’s vulnerability to sin, pride, and irrationality, themes central to the didactic art of the time.

The Church’s Teachings on Poverty and Disability

The Church’s teachings on poverty and individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities (often categorized as “madness” or “folly” in the language of the period) were complex and often contradictory. Rooted in Biblical tradition, the Church viewed the poor as spiritually significant, citing Christ’s teachings about the blessedness of the poor in spirit and the moral duty of charity. Almsgiving was a core tenet of Christian life, seen as a means to earn spiritual merit and emulate Christ’s compassion.

However, the Church also distinguished between the "deserving poor" (e.g., widows, orphans, and disabled individuals unable to work) and the "undeserving poor" (able-bodied beggars or vagrants perceived as lazy or deceitful). Institutions like hospitals and almshouses, often managed by monastic orders, provided care for the former, though such support was limited and sometimes conditional.

For individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities, the Church’s approach was shaped by a mix of compassion and fear. Disabilities were often interpreted through a theological lens, viewed as either a divine test of faith or as evidence of sin or demonic possession. Terms like "lunatic" or "madman" reflected contemporary beliefs about the supernatural or natural origins of such conditions.

Care and Marginalization

While many monastic and civic institutions cared for the mentally ill and disabled, practices were inconsistent and often harsh. Pilgrimages to holy sites were encouraged as a means of healing, and some individuals were confined in asylums, a practice that became more institutionalized in the late Renaissance. Overall, the Church advocated charity and care but often perpetuated stigmatizing views, framing mental and intellectual disabilities as moral or spiritual deficiencies.

In Summation

The Fool in late medieval and Renaissance art is a deeply layered symbol, reflecting both social realities and spiritual allegories. In the courts and streets of Northern Italy, fools were at once entertainers, outcasts, and reminders of humanity’s flaws. Allegorically, they symbolized the perils of pride, ignorance, and moral decay. The Church’s teachings on poverty and disability, though infused with compassion, often framed these issues within moralistic narratives that reinforced societal hierarchies. Together, these perspectives on the Fool reveal the rich cultural, spiritual, and social tapestry of the era.

In early Tarot decks, such as the Carey sheet and the Tarot of Marseilles, the Fool emerges as a vivid continuation of these themes. As an unnumbered figure, he transcends the ordered progression of the trump suit, representing both the beginning of the soul’s journey and its infinite possibilities. His ragged attire, wandering path, and the ever-present animal companion embody the balance between freedom and folly, vulnerability and potential. These early decks reflect the broader medieval fascination with folly as a mirror to human weakness and a gateway to understanding life’s unpredictability. The Fool thus serves as a bridge between artistic allegory and the metaphysical inquiries of Tarot, offering timeless insights into the human condition.

Further Reading

1. Johan Huizinga: The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919)

Johan Huizinga’s classic study examines the cultural and intellectual life of the late medieval period. He discusses the role of the fool in the context of medieval society’s love of symbolism and theatricality.

Carnival and Festivity: Huizinga highlights how the figure of the fool was integral to the festivals and public rituals of medieval Europe, particularly Carnival. Fools embodied the inversion of societal norms, allowing communities to explore chaos and disorder in a controlled way.

Moral and Spiritual Symbolism: Huizinga links the fool to broader allegorical themes, such as the fragility of human existence and the folly of earthly pursuits.

For Huizinga, the fool was a liminal figure who allowed medieval society to confront its fears of irrationality and mortality while reaffirming its moral and cosmic order.

2. Erwin Panofsky: Early Netherlandish Painting (1953)

Panofsky’s work on Northern Renaissance art discusses the representation of madness and folly, particularly in the works of Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

The Fool in Bosch’s Ship of Fools: Panofsky interprets Bosch’s grotesque figures as allegories for spiritual ignorance and moral degradation.

The Fool as Everyman: Panofsky identifies the fool as a reflection of humanity’s universal susceptibility to sin and irrationality.

Panofsky situates the fool within the moral and eschatological framework of late medieval and Renaissance thought, emphasizing its role as a symbol of human folly and the dangers of straying from divine wisdom.

3. Natalie Zemon Davis: Fiction in the Archives (1987)

In this influential study of Renaissance social and legal history, Natalie Zemon Davis touches on the lives of marginalized figures, including fools, and examines how their narratives were shaped by societal and institutional frameworks.

Fools as Legal and Social Marginals: Davis explores how fools, along with the mentally ill and other “outsiders,” were perceived and treated in early modern Europe.

Agency of Fools: She also examines how fools could use their marginality to critique authority and subvert societal norms, particularly in courtly or legal contexts.

Davis highlights the fluidity of the fool’s role, oscillating between object of ridicule and agent of critique.

4. Beatrice Otto: Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World (2001)

Otto’s comprehensive study examines the cultural and historical significance of jesters and fools across societies, with a focus on their role in medieval and Renaissance Europe.

The Jester as a Social Critic: Otto emphasizes the unique position of court jesters, who could mock authority and speak truth to power under the guise of humor.

Fools and the Carnivalesque: She situates the fool within the broader context of festive traditions, drawing on Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of the “carnivalesque.”

Otto shows how fools occupied a paradoxical role, both reinforcing and challenging societal hierarchies.

5. Mikhail Bakhtin: Rabelais and His World (1965)

Bakhtin’s analysis of François Rabelais’ works provides a foundational framework for understanding the fool in Renaissance literature and culture.

Carnival and the Grotesque: Bakhtin describes the fool as a key figure in the carnivalesque tradition, which subverted official norms through humor, parody, and grotesque imagery.

Folly as Renewal: In Bakhtin’s view, the fool’s association with laughter and the grotesque symbolized renewal and transformation, disrupting rigid social hierarchies.

The fool is central to the carnivalesque spirit, representing the liberation of the body and spirit from societal constraints.

6. E. R. Curtius: European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953)

Curtius explores the intellectual and literary traditions of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, including the role of the fool as a literary archetype.

Classical Influences: He traces the medieval fool back to Greco-Roman traditions, such as the comedic stock characters in ancient theater.

The Fool as Satirical Mirror: Curtius discusses the fool’s role in satirical literature, where they serve as a mirror reflecting societal absurdities.

The medieval and Renaissance fool is a synthesis of classical and Christian traditions, embodying humanity’s moral and intellectual struggles.

7. Barbara Tuchman: A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978)

Tuchman’s historical narrative of the 14th century provides insights into the social and cultural context in which fools and madmen lived.

The Fool as a Reflection of Chaos: Tuchman describes the figure of the fool as emblematic of the era’s uncertainties, including plagues, wars, and social upheaval.

Folly in Literature and Art: She links the depiction of fools in art and literature to the broader cultural fascination with instability and disorder.

Tuchman situates the fool within the broader narrative of medieval Europe’s struggles with crisis and change.

Sola Busca Tarot

The Sola Busca tarot, one of the most enigmatic and influential tarot decks in the history of cartomancy and esotericism, holds a significant place in the evolution of tarot cards. This deck's origins and history intertwine with the cultural and historical context of the late 15th century.

Origin and Development

1. Creation: The Sola Busca tarot is believed to have originated in the late 15th century, around 1491.

1. Location: It is generally attributed to the Italian city-state of Venice, a hub of art, culture, and commerce during the Renaissance period. The deck was most likely created for a noble family or a court, although the specific details remain uncertain.

1. Artistic Style: The deck reflects the artistic styles prevalent in Northern Italy during the late 15th century, particularly the influence of the Venetian school.

Notable Cards and Their Description

1. Unique Features: Unlike the typical tarot decks, which feature the standard Major and Minor Arcanas, the Sola Busca deck is notable for its 78 fully illustrated cards, including the Minor Arcana. This was highly unusual for the time, as most decks only illustrated the Major Arcana.

1. Major Arcana: The Major Arcana in the Sola Busca deck is rich with allegorical and symbolic imagery, blending classical, biblical, and esoteric themes.

1. Minor Arcana: Each of the Minor Arcana cards is illustrated with intricate scenes, often depicting historical or mythological figures, making the deck stand out for its depth and complexity.

Social and Historical Context

1. Renaissance Italy: The deck emerged during the Renaissance, a period of significant cultural, artistic, and intellectual growth in Italy. This era was marked by a revival of interest in the classical world, which is reflected in the imagery of the deck.

1. Nobility and Courts: Tarot cards during this period were often commissioned by noble families and were considered luxury items. The Sola Busca deck, with its detailed artwork and complex symbolism, would have appealed to the educated elite, who had an interest in art, history, and the esoteric.

1. Esoteric and Mystical Traditions: The late 15th century saw a growing interest in mysticism, alchemy, and the occult. The Sola Busca tarot, with its deep symbolic imagery, aligns well with the esoteric traditions of the time.

Influence and Legacy

1. Impact on Later Tarot Decks: The Sola Busca deck significantly influenced the development of tarot in Europe. Its fully illustrated Minor Arcana set a precedent that was later adopted by the Rider-Waite-Smith deck, which became one of the most popular tarot decks in the 20th century.

1. Preservation and Exhibition: Original Sola Busca decks are extremely rare and valuable. The decks are preserved in museums and private collections, and occasionally exhibited to the public.

While the Sola Busca tarot deck is a remarkable artifact with a rich history, there remain uncertainties regarding its exact origins, the identity of its creators, and the full extent of its influence on later decks. However, its significance in the evolution of tarot art and symbolism is unquestionable, making it a subject of enduring fascination for historians, artists, and tarot enthusiasts alike.

The Marseilles revealed: The history of trump cards in Lombardy

Tarot cards are believed to have originated in Northern Italy in the 15th century as a type of playing cards used for gaming. The earliest known surviving Tarot cards are the Visconti-Sforza Tarot decks, which were created in the 1440s for the rulers of Milan.

Over time, the use of Tarot cards expanded beyond gaming to include divination and fortune-telling. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, various esoteric societies, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, began to associate Tarot cards with mystical and occult knowledge.

The exact origins of the Tarot cards and their symbolism remain a subject of debate among scholars. Some argue that the Tarot cards are based on ancient Egyptian or Kabbalistic teachings, while others maintain that they are an original creation of Italian culture.

Despite these uncertainties, Tarot cards have become an important part of Western esotericism, and their use in divination continues to be popular today.

Tarocchi

The earliest known woodblock printed Tarot is the "Mantegna Tarocchi," which was created in the mid-15th century in northern Italy. The Mantegna Tarocchi consists of 50 cards that are divided into five suits, each featuring 10 cards. The suits are based on classical elements and include Swords (Air), Cups (Water), Coins (Earth), Clubs (Fire), and Staves (Spirit).

The Mantegna Tarocchi cards are notable for their intricate woodcut illustrations, which depict scenes from classical mythology and allegorical representations of virtues and vices. Each card features a caption in Latin, which further explains the symbolism of the image.

The history of the Mantegna Tarocchi is not well documented, but it is believed that the cards were created for the Gonzaga family of Mantua, who were known for their patronage of the arts. The cards were likely used for gaming and entertainment, rather than for divination.

Duke of Milan

Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, was known for his extravagant lifestyle, which included a love of gambling. He was reputed to be an avid gambler and is said to have lost significant sums of money at the gaming tables.

According to some historical accounts, Duke Sforza was particularly fond of playing a card game called "triumph" (trionfi),  which was a forerunner of Tarot. Triumph was a popular game among the Italian aristocracy in the 15th century, and it involved bidding on trump cards that were more powerful than the other cards in the deck.

It is not clear whether Duke Sforza played Tarot specifically, as the earliest known Tarot decks were not produced until after his death in 1476. However, it is possible that he played an early form of Tarot or a similar game that used trump cards.

Duke Sforza's love of gambling was not without consequences. He was known for his cruelty and was eventually assassinated by a group of conspirators in 1476. The conspirators included some of his own courtiers who were reportedly angry at his extravagant spending and his use of torture to extract confessions from suspected criminals.

Despite his untimely end, Duke Sforza's love of gambling and his patronage of the arts helped to lay the groundwork for the development of Tarot and other card games that would become popular throughout Europe in the centuries to come.

Trionfi

The game of Triumph, also known as "Trionfi," was a popular card game in Italy during the 15th century and was likely a precursor to Tarot. Triumph and Tarot share some similarities, such as the use of trumps and the division of the deck into suits, but there are also some significant differences between the two games.

A difference between Triumph and Tarot is the imagery on the cards. While the Triumph deck featured some allegorical and mythological imagery, the images were not as elaborate or symbolic as those found in later Tarot decks. The earliest known Tarot decks, such as the Visconti-Sforza and the Sola-Busca Tarot, feature intricate allegorical painted images that have been interpreted in a variety of ways.

Triumph was a trick-taking game, similar to modern games like Bridge or Hearts. Players would bid on the strength of their hands and would try to win tricks by playing the highest card in the suit led or the highest trump card. 

Sola Busca

The Sola Busca tarot, a mysterious and influential tarot deck, emerged in the late 15th century, around 1491, most likely in Venice, Italy. This period, known as the Renaissance, was a time of immense cultural and artistic flourishing, which is reflected in the deck's intricate and symbolic imagery. Unlike typical tarot decks of the time, which primarily illustrated the Major Arcana, the Sola Busca deck was unique for its detailed artwork across all 78 cards, including the Minor Arcana. The deck's imagery blended classical, biblical, and esoteric themes, reflecting the era's revived interest in the classical world and its leanings towards mysticism and the occult.

The Sola Busca tarot was presumably created for the Venetian nobility or a court, as tarot decks were then luxury items and status symbols among the elite. This deck would have appealed particularly to the educated and culturally sophisticated, who were deeply engaged with art, history, and esoteric knowledge. The Renaissance was a time of intellectual exploration and revival of ancient wisdom, and the Sola Busca tarot, with its rich allegorical content, perfectly encapsulated this spirit of the age.

The legacy of the Sola Busca tarot extends far beyond its time, notably influencing the development of later tarot decks. Its fully illustrated Minor Arcana set a new standard, which was later adopted by influential decks like the Rider-Waite-Smith deck in the 20th century. Original Sola Busca decks are now rare and highly valued, preserved in museums and private collections, and their occasional public exhibitions continue to draw interest from historians, artists, and tarot enthusiasts. Despite its enigmatic origins and certain lingering uncertainties about its creation and initial use, the Sola Busca tarot's significance in the history of tarot art and symbolism remains undisputed.

Woodblock Tarot decks and the Tarot of Marseilles

The history of tarot cards, particularly the earliest woodblock Tarot decks, is deeply intertwined with the cultural and artistic developments of the late medieval and early Renaissance periods in Europe. The earliest tarot decks were crafted using woodblock printing, a technique that involved carving an image into a wooden block, applying ink to the block, and then pressing it onto paper. This method emerged in the mid-15th century, likely in Northern Italy, where the first recorded tarot decks were created. These early decks were luxurious items, hand-painted and used primarily by the nobility for games and possibly for divination. The imagery on these cards was symbolic, featuring themes and characters common in Christian and feudal society, along with allegorical and classical figures.

The Tarot of Marseilles, which came into prominence in the 17th century, is a standard pattern for tarot cards used for divination. However, its roots can be traced back to the early woodblock decks. The Tarot of Marseilles preserved much of the iconography and symbolism of these earlier decks. It featured the same basic structure of 22 Major Arcana cards and 56 Minor Arcana cards, with the Major Arcana including iconic images like The Fool, The Lovers, and Death. The Minor Arcana of the Marseilles decks were divided into four suits - swords, batons (wands), cups, and coins (pentacles) - each with ten numbered cards and four court cards. The imagery of these cards, while stylistically evolving over time, retained the essence of the medieval iconography.

The transition from the earliest woodblock tarot decks to the Tarot of Marseilles reflects both technological advancements and shifts in cultural and artistic sensibilities. As the woodblock printing technique evolved, it became easier and more cost-effective to produce cards, leading to wider availability and popularity. The Tarot of Marseilles, printed first in the cities of Lyon and Marseille, France, became a standardized template due to its widespread circulation. The design of the Tarot of Marseilles was particularly influential, serving as a foundation for many later tarot decks. It standardized certain symbolic elements and the arrangement of figures, which became canonical in the tarot tradition.

The relationship between the earliest woodblock tarot decks and the Tarot of Marseilles is thus one of continuity and evolution. The Tarot of Marseilles inherited a rich symbolic language from its predecessors, which it further refined and standardized. This continuity is not just in the imagery and structure of the decks but also in their uses, which ranged from gaming to contemplation, and eventually to divination. The Tarot of Marseilles and its predecessors encapsulate a fascinating blend of medieval and Renaissance art, mysticism, and the human psyche, making them not just tools for divination but also a reflection of the cultural and historical milieu in which they were created.

Five Tarot Myths

These are going to be well known to any reader with more than a passing interest in the Tarot, but they probably bear repeating being as these falsities have been so repeated over the course the past three hundred years.  You'll still find them being forwarded for the newer generations in your New Age and Alt Reality genres.

I think I can just knock these out in what I believe is my very first listicle.

Myth One: Playing cards, and by extension, Tarot cards, were brought to Europe by "The Gypsies."

The idea that Tarot cards were brought to Europe by "Gypsies" is a myth that has been perpetuated for a long time. While it's true that the Tarot deck has a long and fascinating history, its origins are not tied to any specific culture or group of people.

The Tarot deck, as we know it today, originated in Italy during the 15th century as a card game. The earliest known Tarot decks were created for wealthy Italian families to play a popular game called "Tarocchi." It wasn't until later that people began to use the Tarot cards for divination and other spiritual purposes.

There is no evidence to support the idea that "Gypsies" brought the Tarot to Europe. In fact, the Romani people, who are commonly referred to as "Gypsies," appeared in Europe after the first trump decks with a special trump suit as found in the Tarot had already been developed locally in northern Italy, and the arrival of ethnically Romani people was something like fifty years after the first mention of playing cards.

The myth about the Tarot being brought to Europe by "Gypsies" likely stems from the fact that Tarot cards have been associated with fortune-telling and divination for a long time, and the Romani people have been historically marginalized and associated with mystical practices.  The idea that Tarot cards were brought to Europe by "Gypsies" is a myth that lacks historical evidence. The Tarot deck has a complex history and we will discuss in more detail later how the trump suit was developed locally in Italy.

Myth Two: Tarot cards come down to us from ancient Egypt

The myth that Tarot cards come from ancient Egypt is not supported by historical evidence. While it is true that some have associated Tarot with ancient Egyptian symbolism and mythology, there is no evidence to suggest that the Tarot was directly influenced by ancient Egyptian culture.

The earliest known Tarot decks date back to the 15th century in Italy, where they were used primarily for playing games. It wasn't until the 18th century that the Tarot began to be used for divination, and it was during this time that many Tarot decks began to incorporate esoteric and mystical symbolism, including references to ancient Egypt.

It's worth noting that during the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a great deal of interest in ancient Egypt among scholars and the general public, and many mystical and spiritual traditions incorporated Egyptian symbolism and mythology into their practices. It is possible that this interest in ancient Egypt may have influenced the development of Tarot decks that incorporated Egyptian imagery.

However, there is no evidence to suggest that the Tarot was directly descended from or influenced by ancient Egyptian divination practices. The Tarot has a complex and fascinating history that has been shaped by many different cultures and traditions, but its origins are firmly rooted in 15th century Italy.

Myth Three: Tarot cards have their origin in the Kabbalah

The idea that Tarot cards have their origin in the Kabbalah is a myth that has been popularized by some modern esoteric and occult traditions. However, there is no historical evidence to support this claim.

The Kabbalah is a Jewish mystical tradition that emerged in medieval Europe, and it is known for its complex system of cosmology and symbolism. While there are certainly some similarities between the Tarot and the Kabbalah, such as their use of symbols and correspondences, there is no evidence to suggest that the Tarot was directly inspired by the Kabbalah.

Again, the earliest known Tarot decks, which date back to 15th century Italy, were primarily used for playing games and did not have any overt mystical or spiritual significance. It wasn't until the 18th and 19th centuries that the Tarot began to be associated with mysticism and esotericism, and it was during this time that many Tarot decks began to incorporate Kabbalistic symbolism.

It's worth noting that during the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a great deal of interest in esoteric and mystical traditions, including the Kabbalah, among intellectuals and spiritual seekers. It is possible that this interest in the Kabbalah may have influenced the development of Tarot decks that incorporated Kabbalistic symbolism.

Again, we see that a mystical tradition has been added to the Tarot in later centuries and was not originally in evidence in the first two to three hundred years of Tarot cards.

Myth Four: The original Tarot cards contained secrets of Hermetic magic

The idea that the original Tarot cards contained secrets of Hermetic magic is a myth that has been perpetuated in some occult circles. While it is true that the Tarot has been associated with mystical and esoteric practices throughout its history, there is no evidence to suggest that the original Tarot cards were specifically designed as a tool for Hermetic magic.  Occult and mystical traditions were not in evidence with early Tarot decks but were superimposed in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Myth Five: Tarot cards were invented for divination

At least we can say, there is no evidence for this.  We do know that Tarot cards were used for gaming and gambling as with any playing cards.  Any direct historical mentions of Tarot as tools of cartomancy occur well after the invention of the Tarot.

I have elsewhere discussed where tools of gambling and tools of divination overlap and sometimes the divination tool has been ported over to the world of gambling.  The Tarot have gone the other direction, starting as a tool for gaming and later became way of seeing beyond the veil, so to speak.

The Marseilles deep dive after 29 Years of Procrastination

I am a master-class procrastinator. I have not posted here in 10.5 years [update: it's been 3 years since I wrote the first three paragraphs of this post, it has now been 13 years], and there is a series of posts I have been meaning to write since long before I started this blog. Of course, at the time, I had never heard of a blog, and I was thinking more of a book with a spine, covers, and paper leaves. Just imagine.

So here's the thing: twenty-nine years ago, I found something hidden in plain sight--plain to be seen in the images of the Tarot of Marseilles. No one had ever mentioned this to me before, and I had never read about it. I still have not come across any accounting of it anywhere. That is why I feel like I ought to lay it out for someone else to see as well, before I die.

It was the Fall of 1994, Eugene. I had been working in a bakery between stints in graduate school. A friend of mine, also named David, would occasionally meet over coffee to talk about Tarot. Sometimes we might do readings for each other. More often, we would share our Tarot journals and discuss the meaning and symbolism of the cards.

Up until then, my knowledge of the Tarot had been limited to the books I could find and afford from the local New Age bookstore, Paralandra (long closed now). I can still smell the patchouli. I would pore over the decks on display and the section of related books. They had open display versions of each deck I looked through covetously. I thumbed through the books, but inevitably, I was too poor to buy them.

What I could glean from thumbing through books I would never buy was that the Tarot was brought to Europe by "Gypsies" and had originated in ancient Egypt. The symbolism of the Major Arcana was all grounded in the secrets of Kabbalah, astrology, and numerology.

Then, around this time, 29 years ago, when I was frequenting coffee shops with the other David, with a pack of Tarot in one hand and a composition book in the other, I discovered two important things (but not my big singular discovery yet; I will tell you about that further on): (1) A Wicked Pack of Cards: The Origins of the Occult Tarot by Michael Dummett, et al., and (2) The Tarot of Marseilles. The takeaway from discovery number one was that all those things I had learned about the history and origin of the Tarot were dead wrong. And that led to discovery number two: the existence of the Tarot before occult symbolism was added, still readily available to us today in the form of the Tarot of Marseilles.

Following upon these discoveries, we feverishly discussed what the "real" symbolism of the Tarot must be when you've removed all the occult systems that had been forced onto it over the years, like washing away a painting on top of a painting to discover the treasure underneath.  What discovery were we going to make as we carefully cleaned away the layers of occultist kitsch to find what lay beneath?  One thing I remember the elder David had said to me, "Don't impose anything from the outside, just look at the images as they are presented--what was the artist showing us?"

There was a point in time, where I found myself in my tiny campus quad, by myself, with my pack of Marseille Tarot.  I had surely drank too much coffee that day and I had probably passed through environmental cannabinoid vapors at some point that day, ubiquitous in the Eugenian atmosphere.  So there I was on my carpeted floor--a moss green if I recall--I had the 22 trump cards (because "Major Arcana" was something made up by the occultists) all spread out before me in an ordered circle.  Then I saw it.  The pattern.  There was a pattern after all, not dependent on numerology, or Kabalah, or ancient Egyptian cosmology.  It was a pattern self evident in the images themselves.

What had I seen?  Well, I'll get to that, but I'll need to go over context first.  Insofar as I was engaging in some sort of archaeology of pure symbols and representation, we need to understand the context--the strata in which the symbols were found.  An artifact is never removed from a site without first analyzing the context.  So too with our symbols.  More on this.  I will try not to wait 13 years before my next post.  We'll see . . .

For God's Will or Money: The Long History of the Lowly Pip

In recent years it has become quite widely accepted that tarot cards were not invented for divination, but were in fact added to the standard deck of cards for the purpose of playing a game.  The game of Trionfo (or similar) was most certainly played for money when it first appeared in the 14th Century Italy as were card games in general.  The use of tarot for fortune telling did not come about until several centuries later.

However, a study of the history of gambling and divination reveals that the two pursuits are intertwined and inexorably linked through time and space.  The transformation of the tarot from a tool of gaming to a tool of foretelling is not the first time a practice has shifted from vice to divine or the reverse.  The tools of divination and gambling share certain traits and features.  This allows one to easily become the other.  It seems the two practices also share a certain space in the human mind.  When faced with the uncertain, we respond with an immiscible swirl of hope, fear and fascination.  The tension and distress of this mental state lead people to seek out the fortune teller.  The gambler, on the other hand, seeks the thrill of this internal state and induces it with the game.

The relentless human pursuit of gambling has preserved an amazing persistence in its forms and artifacts through not just centuries, but millennia.  When new features were added to the technology of gambling, the innovations gradually migrated across the Eurasian land mass, following the trade routes.  Thus, we can trace a linear and unbroken history of gambling from the present back to the very beginnings of written history.

If we delve into the deep history of the cards, before cards were in fact cards, we find their origin lies not in gambling, but an ancient form of divination that sought to determine the will of God.  What ties playing cards and tarot cards to this ancient form of divination is the pip.  All decks of cards include ten pip cards (or numbered cards) for each of the four suits.  Although pip cards are marked with the symbol of the suit, the pip originated as a simple dot as they are still found on dice and dominoes.

Before there were pips on dice, before there were dice, there was the casting of lots.  This may be familiar from the bible.  Casting lots was a tradition in the fertile crescent probably well before the ethnic identity of the Hebrews coalesced. Casting lots, or cleromancy, was the practice of throwing items and interpreting the resulting patterns to determine the will of a god.  Although just about any item could be used, the use of small bones became standard, in particular, the use of the hucklebones (or knucklebones) of sheep or goats.  These are also called astragali.

Before long a convention developed regarding the meaning of which side landed up.  Priests or gamers eventually began to file the sides of the astragali to make them roll more randomly and also started marking insignia on the sides to indicate the meaning.  The first pips appeared as patterns of holes drilled into the sides of astragali.  Hucklebones with drilled holes, very similar to these ancient onces, are still used in India to divine illness or the wishes of spirits.  By 3000 B.C.E. we see the appearance of the first cubical dice with pips on all six sides.  Once dice were invented they could be made from other material than bone.

When astragali and dice changed from tools of divination to tools of gambling is not completely clear because there are few if any Mesopotamian records regarding gambling.  There was undoubtedly an overlap.  We do know that dice became increasingly common over time suggesting that they were no longer limited to use by priests.

As a tool of gambling, dice spread both west and east.  In Europe they were popular throughout the Roman Empire and continued to be popular in the Middle Ages despite repeated attempts by the church to repress gambling.  In Asia, dice followed the trade routes and reached China by the 7th Century.  By 900 C.E., the Chinese had transformed dice into bone tablets with pips known as kwat pai or dominoes.  From dominoes, the Chinese invented Mah Jong and eventually transferred the system of pips and other symbols from tablets to cardboard.  Playing cards were said to have been invented in the year 1120 C.E.

The pips were transformed into four suits.  The original suits were (1) coins, (2) strings of coins, (3) myriads of coins, and (4) tens of myriads of coins.  It is easy to see how the round pips became seen as "coins" especially with the association with gambling.  Then playing cards traveled west to the Middle East where the suits became (1) polo sticks, (2) coins, (3) swords, and (4) cups.  Playing cards arrived in Italy by the late 14th Century where these suits were preserved except for the suit of polo sticks which was changed to "batons."  These are the same suits still used in Tarot decks.  The now familiar suits on common playing cards of diamonds, clubs, hearts and spades were later devised in France.

So, there you have it, the pip through 5000 years of Eurasian history, from the casting of lots in Mesopotamia to the suited pips on the everyday deck of playing cards.

For a detailed history of dice and cards, see:

Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling

Cuddly Tarot?

Hanson-Roberts Tarot Deck | Illustrated by Mary Hanson-Roberts.  Published by US Games, 1985.

Ratings

Historical Significance:  Nil

Artistic Appeal:  High

Symbolic Resonance:  Moderate

Evocative Potential:  High

I have a fondness for this deck because it was the first deck I ever bought and used.  Without any knowledge of Tarot, in 1986, I wandered into Perelandra Bookstore (now defunct) in Eugene, and was immediately drawn to the collection of Tarot.  I don't remember now why I chose this particular deck at the time, but for some reason I selected it--or the other way around.  In any case, I enjoyed learning about the Tarot with this deck, and the readings were meaningful enough to keep me interested.  Before writing this, I did the usual Web survey, and I find it interesting how many other people, in their reviews, also describe this as the first deck they ever had.  I don't think that is a coincidence.  The Hanson-Roberts deck, besides being one of the most popular after Rider-Waite and Marseilles, is very user friendly.  If feels safe and non-threatening.  It is a very good deck for beginners.

The artwork is pleasing.  Ms. Hanson-Roberts used the medium of colored pencil with black ink outlines.  This resulted in images that feel very soft with complex color gradations.  The fact that it was printed with continuous color tone makes it distinct from most older decks printed with solid color using half-tone printing processes.

Hanson-Roberts is a skilled artist.  Her compositions are balanced and appealing.  Compared to older decks, the images feel fresh and contemporary.  There are some Art Nouveau elements, but for the most part, the artwork draws directly from the familiar Rider-Waite images, although the style is quite different.  The compositions are zoomed-in compared to R-W, with more detail, giving the feel of being close to the subjects.  The symbology is very much paired down in this deck.

The style of the art can best be described as cartoonish.  The subjects are uniformly warm and friendly, some so much so they are downright cutesy.  There is nothing overtly scary or disturbing in this deck.  The images and the readings from this deck feel very gentle, sometimes whimsical, and always affirming.

The meanings and symbols are firmly and predictably in the occultist Tarot tradition, most famously realized in Rider-Waite.  There are no surprises or new symbolic schemes.  The meaning associated with each card is much that same as with R-W and derivatives.  As always, this deck comes with its own pamphlet, but if you're familiar with the R-W meanings, you will hardly need it.

It should come as a surprise to no one that Mary Hanson-Roberts, a long-time Florida resident, is an illustrator of comics featuring felines and all things cute and furry.  Her best know comic, called Here Comes a Candle, was first serialized in the comic periodical, Furrlough, and, in 2000, was published as a graphic novel.  She is an active member of the "Furry Art" community and is known to attend, sometimes in a place of honor, furry art conventions such as ConFurence and FurFest.

In any case, the Hanson-Roberts Tarot deck is a little too cute for my taste, but it still holds sentimental value for me, as it apparently does for many others also.  It is a good starter deck due to ease of use and its kind personality.  It is especially recommended for youth and anyone who experiences fearfulness at using a traditional deck.

There is also a companion guide available specific to this deck:  The Hanson-Roberts Tarot Companion

If you like this deck, you might also have a look at her other deck, The Whimsical Tarot: A Deck for Children and the Young at Heart. . . it features, as you might guess, bipedal cats.