The Tarot trump card, the Fool, depicts a wandering figure carrying a staff and bundle, often accompanied by a dog tugging at his clothes. The Fool is a well known figural image from the late Medieval period through the Early Modern era. Here, I will examine the Fool as depicted on the oldest printed versions of the Tarot in its sociohistorical context.
The Tarot of Marseilles, one of the oldest and most influential Tarot decks, dates back to 17th-century France and became the standard for Tarot design. Its bold, woodcut-style imagery is rooted in earlier traditions best exemplified by the partial print of the Carey sheet.
The Carey sheet, an earlier artifact from the late 15th or early 16th century, is the oldest extant printed example of Tarot cards. Though fragmentary, it includes key elements of the Tarot, such as the Fool, in a simpler and more austere style. Both the Marseilles deck and the Carey sheet serve as milestones in the history of Tarot, reflecting its original form.
The Carey sheet originated in Northern Italy, likely Milan or Ferrara, in the late 15th or early 16th century. It represents one of the earliest examples of printed Tarot imagery, produced using woodblock printing techniques. The sheet is fragmentary, but it provides a glimpse of early Tarot design that predates the Tarot of Marseilles.
While less detailed than the Marseilles deck, the Carey sheet's linear and symbolic representations of characters laid the groundwork for the more refined Marseilles imagery. Iconographic elements like the Fool’s staff and bundle, or the presence of allegorical figures, establish a visual and thematic continuity between the two traditions. The Carey sheet illustrates the developmental phase of Tarot design, bridging Italian Renaissance origins and the standardized French styles exemplified by the Marseilles deck.
The Fool in the Marseilles Tarot
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| Fool of the Marseilles |
One of the most notable features is the presence of a small dog. The animal appears to be leaping or tugging at the Fool's garments, particularly the lower part of his trousers. Interpretations of the dog vary—it may represent loyalty, instinct, or even a warning of danger. The dog’s actions appear playful but also disruptive, hinting at both companionship and the risks of distraction or ignorance.
Behind the Fool, the background is often sparse, emphasizing movement rather than a fixed location. Unlike the later occultist inspired Fool cards, there is no cliff. The card lacks a number in the trump suit sequence, signifying its unique status as a card both within and outside the ordered system of the Tarot. In this way, the Fool is both a beginning and an end, a card of infinite possibilities and undefined outcomes.
The Fool in the Carey Sheet
The Carey sheet, an early example of Tarot iconography from the late 15th or early 16th century, presents a simpler but no less evocative depiction of the Fool. This sheet, a precursor to the Marseilles deck, shows a similar wandering figure, but its artistic style is more austere, reflecting the woodcut techniques of its time.
The Fool on the Carey sheet also carries a staff and bundle, indicating his role as a traveler. His attire appears tattered, emphasizing themes of poverty or asceticism. A dog or other animal is present, though its depiction is less dynamic than in later decks. This might suggest a quieter interaction between man and beast, focusing more on the figure's solitary journey.
The Fool in the Visconti and Visconti-Sforza Decks
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| from the Cary Yale Visconti |
The Fool in the Visconti Tarot is depicted as a wild and ragged figure, with an emphasis on his untamed and erratic nature. He is dressed in ragged, mismatched clothing, sometimes adorned with bells or other jester-like accessories, though far from the whimsical or colorful appearance seen in later decks. His hair is unkempt, and his expression is often wide-eyed, hinting at madness or a detachment from societal norms.
What sets this depiction apart is the Fool's physical posture and the lack of a clear sense of motion. He appears static, as if frozen in his role as an outsider or madman. This stillness contrasts with the dynamic energy of the Fool in the Marseilles Tarot, suggesting a more contemplative or tragic interpretation of the character.
In the Visconti-Sforza deck, the Fool retains many features of his predecessor but adds a layer of complexity. This version of the Fool, often referred to as "Il Matto," is portrayed with more humanity and nuance. He is barefoot, emphasizing his vulnerability and connection to the earth, and his tattered garments are adorned with symbolic patterns that may hint at the folly of material pursuits.
A striking feature of the Visconti-Sforza Fool is his inclusion of symbolic objects. He often carries a staff and sometimes a small bundle, though less prominently than in the Marseilles or Carey depictions. Some versions of the card include a garland of leaves around his head, a motif often associated with Dionysian revelry or divine madness. These details elevate the Fool from a mere outcast to a figure embodying both folly and sacred wisdom.
The animal companion—a key feature in later decks—is not always present in these early Visconti depictions. Instead, the focus remains on the human figure.
The Fool in the Sola Busca Tarot
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| Sola Busca Fool |
The Sola Busca Tarot, created in the late 15th century, is renowned as the earliest fully illustrated Tarot deck, rich in alchemical and esoteric symbolism. The deck’s depiction of the Fool, known as Mato, diverges from traditional portrayals, offering a distinct and thought-provoking interpretation.
In the Sola Busca deck, Mato is depicted as a grotesque and somewhat unsettling figure. He hunches forward with an exaggerated posture, dressed in mismatched and tattered garments that emphasize his disheveled and chaotic nature. His wild, unkempt appearance, along with his manic expression, conveys a sense of erratic energy and detachment from societal norms.
Instead of the familiar staff and bundle seen in other decks, Mato carries and plays a bagpipe. This detail is significant, as the bagpipe was often associated with folly and excess in medieval and Renaissance iconography. The instrument’s droning, earthy sound made it a symbol of the body and base instincts, contrasting with the higher, celestial associations of string instruments like the lute.
The bagpipe connects Mato to bodily desires and irrationality, reflecting humanity’s instinctual, untamed side. Playing the bagpipe, an instrument often linked to peasants or rustic simplicity, Mato embodies a mockery of reason and the intellectual pretensions of society. The act of playing the bagpipe amidst his grotesque appearance amplifies the sense of chaos and unpredictability, suggesting a break from societal norms and expectations.
Unlike the Fool in other Tarot decks, Mato is depicted alone, without a loyal dog or companion. This solitude emphasizes his isolation and self-reliance, suggesting that his journey through life is unmoored from external guidance or connection to others. The focus on the bagpipe further suggests an itinerant performer, perhaps traveling from carnival to carnival.
The Misero Card in the Mantegna Tarocchi
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| Mantegna Tarocchi |
One of the most striking cards in the Mantegna deck is the Misero (the Beggar). Often interpreted as a prototype of the Fool, it depicts a beggar in tattered clothing, leaning on a staff with a downcast expression. Unlike the more dynamic Fools of Tarot, the Misero is static, emphasizing poverty and human frailty rather than movement or journey.
The Misero wears torn clothing, symbolizing material and spiritual destitution. Leaning heavily on a staff, he conveys dependence and weariness, contrasting with the carefree energy of Tarot Fools. The card represents humanity’s lowest condition, inviting reflection on themes of humility, suffering, and the precariousness of existence.
The Fool in Late Medieval and Renaissance Culture
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| Hieronymus Bosch's The Ship of Fools |
Fools often wore bells, a cap with donkey ears, or motley clothing, distinguishing them from common peasants and linking them to the role of the court jester. The visual iconography of the Fool was closely tied to popular morality plays and carnival traditions, where such figures played a dual role: both mocking societal norms and subtly critiquing authority.
In works such as Hieronymus Bosch's The Ship of Fools (c. 1490–1500), the Fool is part of a larger allegorical commentary on human folly. Bosch's grotesque figures, including the Fool, serve as cautionary examples of moral degradation and spiritual ignorance, aligning with the didactic tone of the era's art.
The Social Significance of the Fool in Northern Italy
In late medieval and early Renaissance Northern Italy, the Fool occupied a liminal social space. On one hand, jesters and fools were integral to the courts of powerful families like the Visconti and Sforza. These "licensed fools" entertained with sharp wit and satire, serving as both comic relief and truth-tellers who could criticize authority under the guise of humor. Their presence reflected the complex interplay between social order and sanctioned subversion.
Outside the courts, "natural fools" (a term used for individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities) and wandering beggars were marginalized, often surviving on charity. The cities and courts of Northern Italy, bustling with artistic and intellectual activity, provided a stark contrast to the lives of these individuals, who embodied the fragility of the human condition in a rapidly changing world.
The Fool also appeared in popular festivals, particularly Carnival, where societal hierarchies were temporarily inverted. During these festivities, the Fool’s antics and mockery symbolized the chaotic underside of society, a necessary release before the return to order.
The Allegorical Role of the Fool in Art
Allegorically, the Fool in late medieval and Renaissance art symbolized moral and spiritual folly. His image often carried warnings about the dangers of ignoring divine wisdom and succumbing to worldly temptations. In this context, the Fool was a visual embodiment of the Biblical admonition: "The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God’" (Psalm 14:1). This verse underscored the connection between folly and spiritual ignorance, making the Fool a figure of moral caution.
In allegorical cycles, such as those in illuminated manuscripts or frescoes, the Fool was juxtaposed with Wisdom or Prudence, contrasting the destructive consequences of folly with the rewards of virtue. The Fool’s presence reminded viewers of humanity’s vulnerability to sin, pride, and irrationality, themes central to the didactic art of the time.
The Church’s Teachings on Poverty and Disability
The Church’s teachings on poverty and individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities (often categorized as “madness” or “folly” in the language of the period) were complex and often contradictory. Rooted in Biblical tradition, the Church viewed the poor as spiritually significant, citing Christ’s teachings about the blessedness of the poor in spirit and the moral duty of charity. Almsgiving was a core tenet of Christian life, seen as a means to earn spiritual merit and emulate Christ’s compassion.
However, the Church also distinguished between the "deserving poor" (e.g., widows, orphans, and disabled individuals unable to work) and the "undeserving poor" (able-bodied beggars or vagrants perceived as lazy or deceitful). Institutions like hospitals and almshouses, often managed by monastic orders, provided care for the former, though such support was limited and sometimes conditional.
For individuals with intellectual or psychiatric disabilities, the Church’s approach was shaped by a mix of compassion and fear. Disabilities were often interpreted through a theological lens, viewed as either a divine test of faith or as evidence of sin or demonic possession. Terms like "lunatic" or "madman" reflected contemporary beliefs about the supernatural or natural origins of such conditions.
Care and Marginalization
While many monastic and civic institutions cared for the mentally ill and disabled, practices were inconsistent and often harsh. Pilgrimages to holy sites were encouraged as a means of healing, and some individuals were confined in asylums, a practice that became more institutionalized in the late Renaissance. Overall, the Church advocated charity and care but often perpetuated stigmatizing views, framing mental and intellectual disabilities as moral or spiritual deficiencies.
In Summation
The Fool in late medieval and Renaissance art is a deeply layered symbol, reflecting both social realities and spiritual allegories. In the courts and streets of Northern Italy, fools were at once entertainers, outcasts, and reminders of humanity’s flaws. Allegorically, they symbolized the perils of pride, ignorance, and moral decay. The Church’s teachings on poverty and disability, though infused with compassion, often framed these issues within moralistic narratives that reinforced societal hierarchies. Together, these perspectives on the Fool reveal the rich cultural, spiritual, and social tapestry of the era.
In early Tarot decks, such as the Carey sheet and the Tarot of Marseilles, the Fool emerges as a vivid continuation of these themes. As an unnumbered figure, he transcends the ordered progression of the trump suit, representing both the beginning of the soul’s journey and its infinite possibilities. His ragged attire, wandering path, and the ever-present animal companion embody the balance between freedom and folly, vulnerability and potential. These early decks reflect the broader medieval fascination with folly as a mirror to human weakness and a gateway to understanding life’s unpredictability. The Fool thus serves as a bridge between artistic allegory and the metaphysical inquiries of Tarot, offering timeless insights into the human condition.
Further Reading
1. Johan Huizinga: The Autumn of the Middle Ages (1919)
Johan Huizinga’s classic study examines the cultural and intellectual life of the late medieval period. He discusses the role of the fool in the context of medieval society’s love of symbolism and theatricality.
Carnival and Festivity: Huizinga highlights how the figure of the fool was integral to the festivals and public rituals of medieval Europe, particularly Carnival. Fools embodied the inversion of societal norms, allowing communities to explore chaos and disorder in a controlled way.
Moral and Spiritual Symbolism: Huizinga links the fool to broader allegorical themes, such as the fragility of human existence and the folly of earthly pursuits.
For Huizinga, the fool was a liminal figure who allowed medieval society to confront its fears of irrationality and mortality while reaffirming its moral and cosmic order.
2. Erwin Panofsky: Early Netherlandish Painting (1953)
Panofsky’s work on Northern Renaissance art discusses the representation of madness and folly, particularly in the works of Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder.
The Fool in Bosch’s Ship of Fools: Panofsky interprets Bosch’s grotesque figures as allegories for spiritual ignorance and moral degradation.
The Fool as Everyman: Panofsky identifies the fool as a reflection of humanity’s universal susceptibility to sin and irrationality.
Panofsky situates the fool within the moral and eschatological framework of late medieval and Renaissance thought, emphasizing its role as a symbol of human folly and the dangers of straying from divine wisdom.
3. Natalie Zemon Davis: Fiction in the Archives (1987)
In this influential study of Renaissance social and legal history, Natalie Zemon Davis touches on the lives of marginalized figures, including fools, and examines how their narratives were shaped by societal and institutional frameworks.
Fools as Legal and Social Marginals: Davis explores how fools, along with the mentally ill and other “outsiders,” were perceived and treated in early modern Europe.
Agency of Fools: She also examines how fools could use their marginality to critique authority and subvert societal norms, particularly in courtly or legal contexts.
Davis highlights the fluidity of the fool’s role, oscillating between object of ridicule and agent of critique.
4. Beatrice Otto: Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World (2001)
Otto’s comprehensive study examines the cultural and historical significance of jesters and fools across societies, with a focus on their role in medieval and Renaissance Europe.
The Jester as a Social Critic: Otto emphasizes the unique position of court jesters, who could mock authority and speak truth to power under the guise of humor.
Fools and the Carnivalesque: She situates the fool within the broader context of festive traditions, drawing on Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of the “carnivalesque.”
Otto shows how fools occupied a paradoxical role, both reinforcing and challenging societal hierarchies.
5. Mikhail Bakhtin: Rabelais and His World (1965)
Bakhtin’s analysis of François Rabelais’ works provides a foundational framework for understanding the fool in Renaissance literature and culture.
Carnival and the Grotesque: Bakhtin describes the fool as a key figure in the carnivalesque tradition, which subverted official norms through humor, parody, and grotesque imagery.
Folly as Renewal: In Bakhtin’s view, the fool’s association with laughter and the grotesque symbolized renewal and transformation, disrupting rigid social hierarchies.
The fool is central to the carnivalesque spirit, representing the liberation of the body and spirit from societal constraints.
6. E. R. Curtius: European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (1953)
Curtius explores the intellectual and literary traditions of the Middle Ages and Renaissance, including the role of the fool as a literary archetype.
Classical Influences: He traces the medieval fool back to Greco-Roman traditions, such as the comedic stock characters in ancient theater.
The Fool as Satirical Mirror: Curtius discusses the fool’s role in satirical literature, where they serve as a mirror reflecting societal absurdities.
The medieval and Renaissance fool is a synthesis of classical and Christian traditions, embodying humanity’s moral and intellectual struggles.
7. Barbara Tuchman: A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century (1978)
Tuchman’s historical narrative of the 14th century provides insights into the social and cultural context in which fools and madmen lived.
The Fool as a Reflection of Chaos: Tuchman describes the figure of the fool as emblematic of the era’s uncertainties, including plagues, wars, and social upheaval.
Folly in Literature and Art: She links the depiction of fools in art and literature to the broader cultural fascination with instability and disorder.
Tuchman situates the fool within the broader narrative of medieval Europe’s struggles with crisis and change.
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